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* = Minimum Standards for Physical Science-Chemistry & Physical Science-Physics)
Items not starred are to be covered in Chemistry I and Physics I, but may be optionally covered in Physical Science.

* Introduction to Physical Science / Basic Science Skills

* Safety skills and procedures
* Process skills
* Controlled experiment / variables - constants and controls
* Graphing
* Measurement - common SI/metric units, derived units and formulas (conversions, possibly simple dimensional analysis)
* Precision and accuracy
* Accurate use of equipment / technology (calculators, computers, CBLs, etc.)
* Calculate mass, volume, density relationships
 

IV.  Physical Science (CHEMISTRY)

* A.  Structure of Atoms

* 1.  Matter is made of minute particles called atoms, and atoms are composed of even smaller components.  These components have measurable properties, such as mass and electrical charge.  Each atom has a positively charged nucleus surrounded by negatively charged electrons.  The electric force between the nucleus and electrons holds the atom together.
* a.  Trace the historical development of the model of the atom including the contributions of Dalton, Thomson, Rutherford, and Bohr.
   b.  Cite the physical and chemical evidences for the existence and structure of atoms.
* c.  Compare and contrast the component particles of the atom.

* 2.  The atom’s nucleus is composed of protons and neutrons, which are much more massive than electrons.  When an element has atoms that differ in the number of neutrons, these atoms are called different isotopes of the element.
   a.  Trace the development of nuclear models including the contributions of the Curies, Meitner, and Fermi.
* b.  Identify the charge, component particles, and relative mass of the nucleus.
* c.  Explain that elements exist as isotopes, which may be stable or unstable (radioactive).

* 3.  The nuclear forces that hold the nucleus of an atom together, at nuclear distances, are usually stronger than the electric forces that would make it fly apart.  Nuclear reactions convert a fraction of the mass of interacting particles into energy, and they can release much greater amounts of energy than atomic interactions.  Fission is the splitting of a large nucleus into smaller pieces.  Fusion is the joining of two nuclei at extremely high temperature and pressure, and is the process responsible for the energy of the sun and other stars.
* a.  Explain why like charges are able to remain in close proximity in the nucleus.
   b.  Contrast the energy released by nuclear reactions to that released by chemical reactions.
* c.  Compare and contrast fission and fusion reactions showing how they are processes that convert matter to energy.
* d.  Describe fusion as the process that fuels the sun and other stars.
* e.  Debate the consequences of the development of nuclear applications such as the atomic bomb, nuclear power plants, and medical technologies.

   4.  Radioactive isotopes are unstable and undergo spontaneous nuclear reactions, emitting particles, and/or wavelike radiation.  The decay of any one nucleus cannot be predicted, but a large group of identical nuclei decay at a predictable rate.  This predictability can be used to estimate the age of materials that contain radioactive isotopes.
   a.  Explain that unstable isotopes undergo spontaneous nuclear decay, emitting energy or particles and energy.
   b.  Apply the predictable rate of nuclear decay to estimate the age of materials.

* B.  Structure and Properties of Matter

* 1.  Atoms interact with one another by transferring or sharing electrons that are furthest from the nucleus.  These outer electrons govern the chemical properties of the element.
* a.  Predict the charge a representative element will acquire based on its outer electron arrangement.

* 2.  An element is composed of a single type of atom.  When elements are listed in order according to the number of protons (called the atomic number), repeating patterns of physical and chemical properties identify families of elements with similar properties.  This "Periodic Table" is a consequence of the repeating pattern of outermost electrons and their permitted energies.
* a.  Trace the historical development of the periodic table including the contributions of Mendeleev.
* b.  Explain the arrangement of elements within a group on the periodic table based on similar physical and chemical properties.
* c.  Explain that property trends on the periodic table are a function of the elements’ atomic structures.
* d.  Determine atomic number, mass number, # protons, # neutrons, # electrons for given isotopes of elements.

* 3.  Bonds between atoms are created when electrons are paired up by being transferred or shared.  A substance composed of a single kind of atom is called an element.  The atoms may be bonded together into molecules or crystalline solids.  A compound is formed when two or more kinds of atoms bind together chemically.
   a.  Trace the historical development of the systematic approach to the study of matter by including the contributions of Lavoisier (Law of Conservation of Matter) and Dalton (atomic theory).
* b.  Compare and contrast elements and compounds.
* c.  Classify compounds as being crystalline solids (ionic) or molecules (covalent) based on the transfer or sharing of outer electrons.
* d.  Predict the ratio by which the representative elements combine to form ionic compounds expressing that ratio in a chemical formula.

* 4.  The physical properties of compounds reflect the nature of the interactions among its molecules.  These interactions are determined by the structure of the molecule, including the constituent atoms and the distances and angles between them.
* a.  Relate the physical properties of compounds to their type of bonding.
   b.  Analyze the physical properties of water as they relate to water’s bonding and molecular shape.
   c.  Investigate how solubility varies among different solutes and for the same solute at different temperatures.
   d.  Analyze the behavior of polar and nonpolar substances in forming solutions.
* e.  Identify factors that affect the rates at which substances dissolve.
* f.  Compare the amount of solute and solvent in concentrated and dilute mixtures.

* 5.  Solids, liquids, and gases differ in the distances and angles between molecules or atoms and therefore the energy that binds them together.  In solids the structure is nearly rigid; in liquids molecules or atoms move around each other but do not move apart; and in gases molecules or atoms move almost independently of each other and are mostly far apart.
* a.  Compare and contrast solids, liquids, and gases in terms of particle arrangement and the energy that binds them together.

   6.  Carbon atoms can bond to one another in chains, rings, and branching networks to form a variety of structures, including synthetic polymers, oils, and the large molecules essential to life.
   a.  Analyze how carbon atoms bond to one another in a variety of structures.
   b.  Describe polymers as molecules bonded together.
   c.  Determine uses of aromatic compounds and polymers in everyday life.
   d.  Explore, investigate, and list some common uses of petroleum products, including manufacturing and medical applications.

* C.  Chemical Reactions

   1.  Chemical reactions occur all around us, for example in health care, cooking, cosmetics, and automobiles.  Complex chemical reactions involving carbon-based molecules take place constantly in every cell in our bodies.
   a.  Explain the process of rusting in terms of electron transfer and debate the economic impact of rusting.
   b.  Describe how metabolism is an inter-related collection of chemical reactions.
        1.  Explain that food is composed partially of large complex molecules that are broken down intosimpler molecules.
        2.  Analyze how these simpler molecules are rearranged into new molecules within living things.
   c.  Explain the sources and environmental effects of some inorganic and organic toxic substances, such as heavy metals and PCB’s.

* 2.  Chemical reactions may release or consume energy.  Some reactions such as the burning of fossil fuels release large amounts of energy by losing heat and by emitting light.  Light can initiate many chemical reactions such as photosynthesis and the evolution of urban smog.
* a.  Investigate and provide evidences of a chemical change by recording systematic observations, such as change in color, odor, and temperature for various chemical reactions.
* b.  Recognize balanced chemical equations.
* c.  Classify reactions as energy-absorbing (endothermic) or energy-releasing (exothermic) based on temperature measurements.
* d.  Conclude from experimental evidence that mass is neither created nor destroyed based on mass measurements.

* 3.  A large number of important reactions involve the transfer of either electrons (oxidation/reduction) or hydrogen ions (acid/base reactions) between reaction ions, molecules, or atoms.  In other reactions, chemical bonds are broken by heat or light to form very reactive radicals with electrons ready to form new bonds.  Radical reactions control many processes such as the presence of ozone and greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, burning and processing of fossil fuels, the formation of polymers, and explosions.
* a.  Differentiate between acids and bases.
     * 1.  Identify the physical characteristics of acids and bases.
     * 2.  Identify acids and bases in terms of their pH.
        3.  Describe neutralization reactions.
        4.  Explain how acid rain is formed and discuss its effects on the environment.
        5.  Evaluate the role pH plays in the development of consumer products.
     * 6.  Analyze the color changes of some common indicators to distinguish among the ranges of acidic, basic, and neutral solutions.
   b.  Examine the role of free radicals in atmospheric changes, cellular changes, and processes such as organic synthesis and burning.

   4.  Chemical reactions can take place in time periods ranging from the few femtoseconds (10-15 seconds) required for an atom to move a fraction of a chemical bond distance to geologic time scales of billions of years.  Reaction rates depend on how often the reacting atoms and molecules encounter one another, on the temperature, and on the properties – including shape – of the reacting species.  Catalysts, such as metal surfaces, accelerate chemical reactions.  Chemical reactions in living systems are catalyzed by protein molecules called enzymes.
   a.  Describe how reaction rates are a function of the collisions among particles.
   b.  Analyze the effects of temperature, particle size, stirring, concentration, and catalysts on reaction rates.
   c.  Apply reaction rate concepts to real life applications such as food spoilage, storage of film and batteries, digestive aids, and catalytic converters.
 

V.  Physical Science (PHYSICS)

* A.  Motions and Forces

* 1.  Objects change their motion only when a net force is applied.  Laws of motion are used to calculate precisely the effects of forces on the motion of objects.  The magnitude of the change in motion can be calculated using the relationship F = ma, which is independent of the nature of the force.  Whenever one object exerts force on another, a force equal in magnitude and opposite in direction is exerted on the first object.
* a.  Trace the historical development of the understanding of forces including the contributions of Galileo, Newton, Franklin, and Coulomb.
* b.  Predict the motion of an object in terms of Newton’s three laws of motion.
   c.  Solve uniformly accelerated, linear motion problems quantitatively and graphically.
* d.  Generate and interpret graphs of linear motion.
* e.  Cite evidence to justify the use of auto safety devices, including seat belts, air bags, bumpers and head rests, in terms of Newton’s laws.

   2.  Gravitation is a universal force that each mass exerts on any other mass.  The strength of the gravitational attractive force between two masses is proportional to the masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
   a.  Describe quantitative changes in gravitational attraction in terms of changes in distances between masses.
   b.  Describe quantitative changes in gravitational attraction in terms of changes in the masses.

* 3.  The electric force is a universal force that exists between any two charged objects.  Opposite charges attract while like charges repel.  The strength of the force is proportional to the charges, and, as with gravitation, inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.  Between any two charged particles, electric force is vastly greater than the gravitational force.  Most observable forces such as those exerted by a coiled spring or friction may be traced to electric forces acting between atoms and molecules.
* a.  Demonstrate the interactions of like and unlike charges.
   b.  Examine changes in electrostatic attraction in terms of changes in distances between two point charges.
   c.  Examine changes in electrostatic attraction in terms of changes in the quantities of the charges.
   d.  Compare the magnitudes of electrical and gravitational forces.
* e.  Discuss the role of static electricity in disruptions and damage to electrical devices.

* 4.  Electricity and magnetism are two aspects of a single electromagnetic force.  Moving electric charges produce magnetic forces, and moving magnets produce electric forces.  These effects help students to understand electric motors and generators.
   a.  Describe how moving electrical charges produce magnetic fields.
   b.  Describe how moving magnets produce electrical fields.
   c.  Compare and contrast electrical motors and electrical generators in terms of energy transfers.
* d.  Examine the effects of the advent of electricity on individuals and society.

* 5.  Analyze electrical circuits that obey Ohm’s Law.
* a.  Construct and schematically diagram simple series circuits and parallel circuits.
   b.  Use an electric meter to measure the voltage and resistance.
* c.  Compare and contrast series and parallel circuits.
* d.  Perform calculations using Ohm’s Law.
* e.  Explain how fuses, surge protectors, and breakers function.

* B.  Conservation of Energy and the Increase in Disorder

* 1.  The total energy of the universe is constant.  Energy can be transferred by collisions in chemical and nuclear reactions, by light waves and other radiations, and in many other ways.  However, it can never be destroyed.  As these transfers occur, the matter involved becomes steadily less ordered.
* a.  Evaluate transformations between potential and kinetic energies and other forms of energy.
* b.  State and apply quantitative relationships between energy, work, power, and efficiency.
   c.  Cite or identify examples of how the disorder of matter changes with energy changes.

* 2.  All energy can be considered to be either kinetic energy, which is the energy of motion; potential energy, which depends on relative position; or energy contained by a field, such as electromagnetic waves.
* a.  Classify energy types as potential, kinetic, or electromagnetic.

* 3.  Heat consists of random motion and the vibrations of atoms, molecules, and ions.  The higher the temperature, the greater the atomic or molecular motion.
   a.  Predict and measure the effects of varying the temperature, pressure, and volume of gases.
* b.  Assess particle motion and distance as they relate to temperature and phase changes.
* c.  Assess the hazards of handling and storing pressurized gases.

* 4.  Everything tends to become less organized and less orderly over time.  Thus, in all energy transfers, the overall effect is that the energy is spread out uniformly.  Examples are the transfer of energy from hotter to cooler objects by conduction, radiation, or convection and the warming of our surroundings when we burn fuels.
* a.  Compare and contrast the environmental impact of power plants that use fossil fuels, water, and nuclear energy to produce electricity.

* C.  Interactions of Energy and Matter

* 1.  Waves, including sound and seismic waves, waves on water, and light waves, have energy and can transfer energy when they interact with matter.
   a.  Identify and show relationships among wave characteristics such as velocity, period, frequency, amplitude, phase, and wavelength.
* b.  Compare and contrast models of longitudinal and transverse waves.
   c.  Give examples of the wave behaviors of reflection, refraction, diffraction, interference, polarization, and Doppler effect.
* d.  Compare light and sound in terms of wave models.
* e.  Distinguish between the electromagnetic spectrum, seismic waves, water waves and sound waves based on their properties and behaviors.
* f.  Describe the energy of a wave in terms of amplitude and frequency.
* g.  Relate wave behavior to health issues such as skin cancer, cataracts, medical diagnostics, and treatment.
   h.  Relate wave behavior to communication issues such as cellular phones, satellites, and animal communication.
   i.  Relate wave behavior to optical and sonic devices such as optic fibers and motion detectors.

* 2.  Electromagnetic waves result when a charged object is accelerated or decelerated.  Electromagnetic waves include radio waves (the longest wavelength), microwaves, infrared radiation (radiant heat), visible light, ultraviolet radiation, x-rays, and gamma rays.  The energy of electromagnetic waves is carried in packets whose magnitude is inversely proportional to the wavelength.
* a.  Compare and contrast the parts of the electromagnetic spectrum in terms of energy.

* 3.  Each kind of atom or molecule can gain or lose energy only in particular discrete amounts and thus can absorb and emit light only at wavelengths corresponding to these amounts.  These wavelengths can be used to identify the substance.
* a.  Describe how the absorbing and releasing of energy by electrons produces light.
   b.  Explain that each element has its own configuration of electrons and has a unique line spectrum that can be used to identify that element.
   c.  Discuss the application of emitted colors by certain substances in such areas as fireworks and light sources.

* 4.  In some materials, such as metals, electrons flow easily, whereas in insulating materials such as glass they can hardly flow at all.  Semiconducting materials have intermediate behavior.  At low temperatures some materials become superconductors and offer no resistance to the flow of electrons.
* a.  Compare insulators, conductors, and semiconductors.
   b.  Describe the conditions under which superconductivity exists.
* c.  Evaluate the impact of miniaturization of electric circuits upon individuals and society.